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  1. Oxford Academic
    https://academic.oup.com/af/article/13/3/44/7205886
    Dairy cow physiology and production limits - Oxford Academic
    Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology of Cattle
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    What is cow anatomy?
    Cows are essential livestock that provides excellent value to their owner. The cow anatomy deals with the forms and structure of their particular organ. It is not possible to describe all the anatomical features of a cow in a single article.
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    Dairy cow physiology and production limits - Oxford A…

    Global milk production of dairy cows has increased steadily for many decades. In the United States, the average annual milk production per cow has doubled within the last 40 years and is nowadays approximately six times greater than 100 years ago (Figure 1; USDA NASS, 2023). Whereas the secretory capacity of the mammary gland currently seems not to...

    Oxford Academic

    Metabolic load, risk of disease, and longevity

    Undoubtedly, the most challenging period for dairy cows is the transition from gestation to lactation, where numerous orchestrated adaptation responses towards a new physiological status (i.e., homeorhesis) take place (Bauman and Currie, 1980). In the light of homeorhetic adaptation, the increased metabolic priority of the mammary gland at the onset of lactation in dairy cows preferentially directs nutrients to the mammary gland (Bauman and Currie, 1980). Although cows experience a considerab...

    Glucose as essential substrate for milk synthesis and immune system

    Approximately 85% of glucose turnover during lactation accounts primarily for lactose synthesis and therefore milk production because the production of lactose mainly determines the amount of milk production (Bauman and Currie, 1980). However, blood glucose concentrations show a nadir in early lactation, and gluconeogenesis starts only at a low rate immediately after parturition, because of low activation of the extra-mitochondrial non-constitutional phosphoenol-pyruvate-kinase (PEPCK). Becau...

    Endocrine control of tissue mobilization and energy homeostasis

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    Limitations imposed by diet and digestion

    Typically for the digestive system of dairy cows is the rumen fermentation of plant fiber by microbes. Depending on dietary composition, decreased passage rate through the rumen and the overall gastrointestinal tract can limit DMI (Figure 3). From a nutritive perspective, roughages used in dairy cow diets provide much fiber, but low amounts of energy. Therefore, exclusive herbage feeding supports milk production only up to 30 kg/d (Kolver, 2003). Beyond this production level, more mobilizatio...

    Limitations imposed by tissue turnover, intermediary metabolism, and the mammary gland

    The amount of energy and nutrients stored in body tissues seems not be a limiting factor for milk production per se. It is rather the turnover that temporarily reaches physiological boundaries. As an example, skeletal stores of calcium in a cow are in the order of several kilograms, whereas the circulating calcium pool in plasma consists of only a few grams (Goff, 2014). With the start of lactation, calcium requirements abruptly increase. The delayed endocrine effects (especially parathyroid...

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    Average milk production in dairy cows will most likelycontinue to increase. Currently known limitations originate from the physiology and effects of adverse environmental factors restrict maximal exploitation of genetic capacity. In particular a sufficient provision especially of glucose and amino acids are the major limiting factors for milk produ...

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