Alexis de Tocqueville (1805-1859) is one of the first political philoso phers who discussed extensively the phenomenon of civil society: free as sociations that exist as intermediate institutions between citizens and the state, and in which citizens can realize their social freedom and equality.

Tocqueville, as many commentators have noticed, examined social life through the lenses of ‘ideal types’. He created from history and from his own observations certain hypothetical models of social and political action in order to make comparisons among societies and cultures and to create hypotheses about larger social patterns.

According to Tocqueville, the most important determinant of the character of any society is its political culture (moeurs). A political culture is shaped not only by sociological conditions and laws, but also, in modern times, by ideas propounded by intellectuals.